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Introduction to Biological Classification
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History of Biological Classification
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Five Kingdom System
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Kingdom Monera
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Bacteria - Size, Shape and Arrangement
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Nutrition in Bacteria
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Respiration in Bacteria
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Reproduction in Bacteria
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Archaebacteria: The Oldest Bacteria
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Cyanobacteria: The Blue-Green Algae
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Mycoplasma: The Wall-Less Bacteria
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Structure of Virus
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Types of Viruses and Viral Diseases
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Viroids, Prions and Virusoids
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Kingdom Fungi
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Vegetative and Asexual Reproduction in Fungi
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Sexual Reproduction in Fungi
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Types of Sexual Reproduction in Fungi
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Introduction to Kingdom Protista
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Chrysophytes: The Golden Algae
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Pyrrophytes: The Fire Algae
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Euglenoids: The Photosynthetic Protists
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Slime Moulds: The Saprophytic Protists
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Protozoans: The Heterotrophic Protists
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Flagellated Protozoans
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Amoeba: The Amoeboid Protozoans
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Sporozoans: The Parasitic Protozoans
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Ciliated Protozoans
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Kingdom Fungi
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Vegetative and Asexual Reproduction in Fungi
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Sexual Reproduction in Fungi
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Types of Sexual Reproduction in Fungi
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Classification of Fungi
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Phycomycetes – Oomycetes and Zygomycetes
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General Feature of Ascomycetes
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General Features Basidiomycetes
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General Features and Importance of Deuteromycetes
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Lichens and Mycorrhiza
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Introduction to Plant Kingdom
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Thallophyta (Algae) - General Features and Importance
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Rhodophyceae (Red Algae)
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Phaeophyceae (Brown Algae)
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Chlorophyceae (Green Algae)
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General Features of Bryophytes
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Bryophytes – Liverworts (Marchantia)
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Bryophytes – Mosses
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General Features of Pteridophytes
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Reproduction in Pteridophytes
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Types of Pteridophytes
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Difference Between Bryophytes and Pteridophytes
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General Features of Gymnosperms
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Reproduction in Gymnosperms
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General Features of Angiosperms
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Life Cycle of Angiosperms
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Problems on Plant Kingdom
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Introduction to Anatomy of Flowering Plants
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Plant Meristematic Tissues
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Apical Meristem
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Intercalary and Lateral Meristems
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Simple Permanent Tissues – Parenchyma
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Simple Permanent Tissues – Collenchyma and Sclerenchyma
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Complex Permanent Tissues – Xylem
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Complex Permanent Tissues – Phloem
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Types of Xylem and Phloem
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Epidermal Tissue System
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Ground Tissue System
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Vascular Tissue System
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Structure of Dicot and Monocot Roots
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Structure of Dicot Stem
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Structure of Monocot Stem
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Structure of Dicot Leaf
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Structure of Monocot Leaf
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Secondary Growth – Vascular Cambium
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Secondary Growth – Cork Cambium
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Spring Wood and Autumn Wood
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Heartwood and Sapwood
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Secondary Growth in Roots
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Introduction to Animal Tissues
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Main Features of Epithelial Tissues
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Specialised Structures and Junctions
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What Are Simple and Stratified Epithelial Tissues?
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Squamous Epithelium
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Cuboidal Epithelial Tissues
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Columnar Epithelium
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Pseudostratified and Transitional Epithelium
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Glandular Epithelium
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What Is Connective Tissue?
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Cells of Connective Tissues
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Fibres of Connective Tissue
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Loose Connective Tissue – Areolar and Adipose
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Dense Connective Tissue
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Skeletal Connective Tissue – Cartilage
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Skeletal Connective Tissue – Bones
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Internal Structure of Bone
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Differences Between Bone and Cartilage
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What Are Muscle Tissues?
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Striated or Skeletal Muscular Tissue
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Unstriated or Smooth Muscular Tissue
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Cardiac Muscular Tissue
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Cells of the Nervous Tissue
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Structure of a Nerve
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Vascular Connective Tissue
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Earthworm – Introduction and Body Wall
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Earthworm – Morphology
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Earthworm – Digestive System
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Earthworm – Blood Vascular System
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Earthworm – Respiratory and Excretory Systems
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Earthworm – Reproduction
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Earthworm – Nervous System and Economic Importance
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Cockroach – Introduction and Body Wall
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Cockroach – Morphology
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Cockroach – Digestive System
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Cockroach – Blood Vascular System
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Cockroach – Respiratory and Excretory Functions
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Cockroach – Nervous System
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Cockroach – Reproductive System
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Frog – Introduction, Morphology and Body Wall
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Frog – Digestive, Respiratory and Blood Vascular Systems
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Frog – Excretory, Nervous and Reproductive Systems
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Introduction to Cell
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Shape, Size and Types of Cells
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Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells
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Cell Membrane: The Outer Cover of the Cell
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Membrane Transport – Passive Transport
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Membrane Transport – Active Transport
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Cytoplasm: The Ground Material of the Cell
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The Endomembrane System and ER
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Golgi Apparatus: The Post Office of the Cell
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Lysosomes: The Suicidal Bags of the Cell
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Vacuoles: The Storage Bodies of the Cell
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Mitochondria: The Power House of the Cell
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Ribosomes: The Protein Factories of the Cell
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Flagella and Cilia
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Centrioles and Centrosome
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Nucleus: The Brain of the Cell
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Introduction to Chromosomes
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Types of Chromosome
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Structure of Cell Wall
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Introduction to Plastids
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Chloroplast: The Kitchen of the Cell
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Introduction to Biomolecules
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Bonding in Biomolecules
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Protein Monomers: The Amino Acids
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Peptides and Protein Primary Structure
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Secondary Protein Structure
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Protein Tertiary and Quaternary Structures
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Functions of Proteins
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Carbohydrates: Classification and Function
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Carbohydrate Monomers: The Monosaccharides
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Glycosidic Bond and Disaccharides
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Polysaccharides: General Introduction and Types
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Homopolysaccharides: Cellulose, Starch and Glycogen
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Some Other Polysaccharides
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Nucleic Acid Structure
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Structure of DNA
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RNA and Its Types
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Lipids: General Introduction and Function
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Lipids Formation and Structure
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Phospholipids, Sphingolipids and Glycolipids
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Steroids and Lipoproteins
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Enzymes and Their Properties
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Nomenclature and Classification of Enzymes
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How Do Enzymes Catalyse Reaction?
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Models for Enzyme Action
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Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity
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Enzyme Inhibition
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Cofactors and Coenzymes
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Primary Metabolites and Secondary Metabolites
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What Is Diffusion?
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Facilitated Diffusion
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Active Transport
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Plant-Water Relations – Water Potential
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Plant-Water Relations – Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure
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Types of Solution and Plasmolysis
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Wall Pressure, Turgor Pressure and Diffusion Pressure Deficit
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Understanding Imbibition
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Uniport, Symport and Antiport
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Practice Questions on Plant-Water Relations
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Symplast and Apoplast
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Ascent of Sap – Root Pressure Theory
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Transpiration – Types and Factors Affecting It
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Ascent of Sap – Transpiration Pull or Cohesion-Tension Theory
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Stomata – Structure and Types
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Mechanism of Opening and Closing of Stomata
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Uptake and Transport of Mineral Nutrients
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Translocation Of Food in Plants By Phloem
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Types of Water in Soil
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Introduction to Mineral Nutrition
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Mineral Requirements of Plants
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Understanding Hydroponics
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Essential Mineral Elements and Their Types
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Role of Macronutrients
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Role of Micronutrients – 1
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Role of Micronutrients – 2
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General Functions of Essential Elements
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Deficiency Symptoms of Essential Elements
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Toxicity of Micronutrients
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Absorption of Minerals and Their Translocation
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Soil: A Reservoir of Nutrients
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Introduction to Nitrogen Cycle and Nitrogen Fixation
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Nitrogen Cycle
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Mechanism of Biological Nitrogen Fixation
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Biochemistry of Nitrogen Fixation by Bacteria
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Nitrate Assimilation in Plants
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Introduction to Photosynthesis in Higher Plants
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Early Experiments of Photosynthesis – Part I
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Early Experiments of Photosynthesis – Part II
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Action and Absorption Spectrum of Photosynthesis
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Where Does Photosynthesis Take Place?
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Photosynthetic Pigments
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Cyclic Photophosphorylation
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Non-cyclic Photophosphorylation
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Chemiosmotic Theory
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Light-Independent Reactions (Calvin Cycle)
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Photorespiration or C2 Cycle
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C4 Pathway and C4 Plants
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CAM Pathway
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Blackman's Law of Limiting Factors
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Factors Affecting Photosynthesis
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Introduction to Plant Growth and Development
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Seed Germination in Plants
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Plant Growth and Its Features
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Methods To Measure Plant Growth
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Phases of Plant Growth
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Factors Affecting Plant Growth
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Differentiation, Dedifferentiation, and Redifferentiation in Plants
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Development in Plants
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Meristematic Tissues and Plant Growth
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Plant Growth Regulators
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Discovery and Plant Growth Hormones
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Plant Growth Hormones – Auxin
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Plant Growth Hormones – Gibberellins
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Differences Between Auxins and Gibberellins
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Plant Growth Hormones – Cytokinin
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Plant Growth Hormones – Ethylene and Abscisic Acid
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Seed Dormancy and Its Importance
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Interactions Among PGRs
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Photoperiodism and Its Significance
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Differences Between Short Day Plants and Long Day Plants
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Vernalisation and Its Mechanism
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Differences Between Vernalisation and Photoperiodism
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Contents of the Oral Cavity
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Salivary Glands and Their Contribution
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Structure of Stomach
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Small Intestine – Structure and Function
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Large Intestine – Structure and Function
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Structural Aspects of Liver
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Functional Aspects of Liver
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Bile: Liver's Key Factor
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Pancreas – Structure and Function
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The Biliary System
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Gall Bladder: The Bile Storehouse
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Pancreatic Juice – Constituents and Functions
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Carbohydrate Digestion
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Protein Digestion
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Fat Digestion
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Absorption of Nutrients
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Assimilation: Fate of Absorbed Food
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Egestion: Expulsion of Unabsorbed Food
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GIT Hormones
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Deficiency Disorders
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Fat-Soluble Vitamins
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Water-Soluble Vitamins – B1, B2, B3, B5
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Water-Soluble Vitamins – B6, B7, B9, B12, C
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Motility and Disorders of the Digestive System
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Intracellular Circulation and Extracellular Circulation
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Blood – Components, Characteristics and Function
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RBC – Formation, Structure and Function
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Haemoglobin: The Respiratory Molecule
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Granular Leucocytes
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Agranular Leukocytes
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Rh Blood Group
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Blood Platelets
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ABO Blood Grouping System
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Circulatory Pathways
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External Structure of Heart
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Internal Structure of Heart
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Lymph and Its Circulation
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Lymphatic Organs
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Cardiac Cycle, Stroke Volume, and Pulse
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Cardiac Output and Heart Sounds
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Understanding the Electrocardiograph
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Blood Vessels
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Double Circulation
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Portal Circulation
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Regulation of Cardiac Activity
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Hypertension and Coronary Artery Disease
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Anaemia, Haemophilia and Leukaemia
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CHF, Cardiac Arrest and Arrhythmia
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Angina, Congenital Heart Defects and Tetralogy of Fallot
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Introduction to Neurons, Nerve Fibres and Neural Control and Coordination
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Neural System in Animals
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The Human Neural System – Classification and Functions
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Structure of a Neuron
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Classification of Neurons and Myelination
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Neuroglia and Its Classification
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Generation of Nerve Impulse
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Conduction of Nerve Impulse
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Understanding Synapses
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What Is a Neurotransmitter?
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Brain and Meninges
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The Forebrain
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Mibrain and Hindbrain
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Spinal Cord and Ventricles
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Cranial and Spinal Nerves
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Divisions of PNS
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Reflex Action
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Sensory Receptors
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Parts of an Eye
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Anatomy of Eyeball
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Photoreceptors and Lens
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Vision – Mechanism and Abnormalities
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External and Middle Ear
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Anatomy of Inner Ear
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Mechanism of Hearing
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Tactile Sensation
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Smell and Taste Sensations
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Neural System Disorders
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Neural vs Endocrine
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Endocrine Glands and Hormones
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Classification of Hormones
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The Hypothalamus
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Anterior Pituitary Gland – I
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Anterior Pituitary Gland – II
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Posterior Pituitary Gland
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Pineal Gland
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Thyroid Gland
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Parathyroid Gland
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Adrenal Gland – Cortex
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Adrenal Gland – Medulla
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Thymus Gland
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Pancreas Gland
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Understanding the Testes
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Understanding the Ovary
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Placenta, Liver and Heart Hormones
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Kidney and GIT Hormones
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Growth Factors and Eicosanoids
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Mechanism of Action of Lipid-Soluble Hormones
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Mechanism of Action of Water-Soluble Hormones
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Regulation of Activity of Endocrine System
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Disorders of Pituitary Gland and Gonads
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Disorders of Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands
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Adrenal Gland Disorders
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Pancreatic Islet Disorders
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